Lengua y Literatura Inglesa-Tesis de Pregrado

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Analyzing Teachers’ Use of Strategies for Reducing the Affective Filter
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-11-04) Arenillas Montoya, Daniela Estefanía; Quezada Vivanco, Antonio Josué; Cabrera Moreno, Sandra Leonor
This research synthesis analyzes the strategies that teachers use to reduce the affective filter in students learning English as a foreign language (EFL) or second language (ESL) and their effects on different age groups. Based on Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis (1982), which highlights self-esteem, motivation, and anxiety as emotional factors that influence language acquisition, the synthesis identifies four main categories of strategies: interactive multimedia, collaborative techniques, affective strategies, and teaching methods. Although all were beneficial for children and adults, their application varied according to emotional and developmental needs. In young learners, playful and visual approaches, such as Total Physical Response (TPR) and virtual games, fostered motivating and safe environments. In adults, strategies that promote autonomy, emotional self-regulation, and meaningful connection, such as goal-oriented tasks, mindfulness, and emotion-based pedagogy, stood out. In all groups, the strategies reduced anxiety, increased motivation, and strengthened confidence. The teaching methods produced more lasting effects due to their comprehensive and continuous nature. The findings underscore the need to apply emotionally sensitive and age-appropriate pedagogical practices to improve well-being and language acquisition, highlighting the value of sustained and multifaceted approaches to language learning.
Teachers’ Perceptions about the Usefulness of Gamification to Increase Motivation in the EFL Classroom
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-11-07) Pinzón Rojas, Juan Pablo; Yupa Alvarracin, Christian Ivan; Cabrera Arias, Sandra Mercedes
This research synthesis was conducted to determine teachers' perceptions of the usefulness of gamification in increasing motivation in the English as a Foreign Language classroom. To answer the research questions posed, 20 empirical studies were used to categorize and analyze the information. After data analysis, the results showed the existence of four benefits presented to increase learner motivation: vocabulary acquisition, grammar, critical and problem-solving skills, and motivation and engagement. In addition, the drawbacks were also examined: lack of teacher training, time, planning, and classroom management. Moreover, teachers' positive perceptions were detailed: increased student motivation and engagement, conducive learning environment, and student-centered learning; on the other hand, teachers' negative perception showed the impact of teaching experience on the failure of this approach. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of gamification bringing benefits for teachers and students; however, there are disadvantages that limit its application, but there is no doubt about its effectiveness. Finally, it is recommended that future research focus on a specific educational setting and consider geographical areas with similar resources and teacher preparation.
Exploring the Influence of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) on EFL Students’ Productive Skills
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-11-05) Molina Plaza, Alex Patricio; Quito Procel, Gabriela Elizabeth; Heras Urgilés, Gerardo Esteban
The present research synthesis examines the implementation of the task-based language teaching (TBLT) method for teaching English to English as a foreign language (EFL) students at different educational levels, focusing on productive skills. During this research study, 21 articles that provided high-quality information on the use of TBLT in classrooms were reviewed. The results indicate that a correct application of the method brings positive effects, as highlighted in the studies. Furthermore, this method contributed to fluency, pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, content organization, and motivation at the end of the testing period in the studies. Three papers show limitations in the effectiveness of the method, due to the lack of teacher training in implementing TBLT effectively, as well as the lack of resources in some institutions. Overall, the results confirm the effectiveness of the TBLT method when implemented properly and with sufficient time to be able to notice improvements in students at different levels of education, in the skills of speaking and writing.
The Use of Communicative Language Teaching to Improve Learners’ Pronunciation
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-29) Espadero Solano, Fernando Andrés; Peláez Guamán, Melissa Valeria; Mora Reino, Juan Fernando
This research synthesis systematically analyzes empirical studies on the impact of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) on English learners’ pronunciation. Its aim is to provide a comprehensive understanding of how CLT contributes to the development of segmental and suprasegmental features during second language acquisition. To achieve this, it addresses three main questions: 1) What are the effects of CLT on learners’ pronunciation features? 2) Which CLT strategies are effective in improving pronunciation? and 3) What challenges do learners face when learning pronunciation? Data collection is carried out through searches in academic databases, ensuring a rigorous and up-to-date selection. The included studies must: 1) provide empirical evidence on pronunciation instruction based on CLT, 2) have been published within the last fifteen years, and 3) employ qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method approaches. The participants’ age is not considered an exclusion criterion, and only studies written in English are included. Once selected, the studies are analyzed to identify and categorize the communicative strategies applied, as well as their effectiveness in improving learners’ pronunciation. This analysis allows for the recognition of common patterns, successful practices, and the main challenges reported by learners. Overall, the synthesis offers valuable evidence on the role of CLT in pronunciation teaching, providing relevant insights for teachers and researchers interested in promoting more effective communicative pronunciation instruction.
The Use of ICT Tools for the Acquisition of Reading and Writing in EFL Classrooms
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-11-03) Medina Loja, Doménica Joseline; Orellana Marca, Bárbara Zulema; Mora Jaramillo, Adriana Patricia
The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) has been demonstrated to be an effective method for improving students' reading and writing skills. This research synthesis examines twenty empirical studies to determine the types of ICT tools, their effects, and how teachers perceive the role of ICTs in EFL education. The selected research articles incorporate qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies, published in journals within the past decade. The results are evidenced that the use of ICT tools develop students' motivation, personal commitment to learning, self-confidence, autonomy, proactivity, and enthusiasm for classroom activities. Nevertheless, the analyzed articles revealed several challenges, including limited access to resources, insufficient teacher training, and a lack of institutional support. Consequently, this study suggests that institutions should provide teachers with appropriate training to integrate ICTs in EFL classrooms.
Analyzing the effectiveness of incidental and intentional vocabulary learning in SLA
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-11-03) Camposano Muñoz, Melanie Dayanna; Vivero García, Leandro Sebastian; Calle Calle, Ana María
This research synthesis examines the effectiveness of incidental and intentional vocabulary learning strategies in second language acquisition, aiming to give an answer to what approach fosters better lexical retention among students. While incidental learning occurs unconsciously through exposure to the target language, intentional learning requires conscious and structured efforts. This research synthesis is a systematic review of 20 empirical studies published in the last 15 years. Studies which employed quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods were selected, as well as research focused on vocabulary development of L2 learners. The present study aims to compare the usage of intentional and incidental approaches across proficiency and educational levels. Based on the analysis of the literature, it can be concluded that intentional learning stands out among beginners, providing faster vocabulary gains by explicit instruction, meanwhile incidental learning showed more benefits for those who already possess an intermediate to advanced level. Nevertheless, a mixed approach was confirmed to be the most effective strategy, providing balance with the strengths of each method. Additionally, this synthesis highlights the lack of research analyzing the impact of incidental learning at the beginner stage, as well as the relatively limited investigation conducted in non-Asian countries. Finally, tailored instruction based on proficiency, extensive input activities, and vocabulary recycling are recommended as practical strategies.
The Use of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) in the Listening Comprehension of EFL Learners
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-11-05) Becerra Nievez, Ismael Fernando; Montaño Saraguro, Brandon Steven; Mora Reino, Juan Fernando
Language teaching approaches have continued to change in tandem with technological development over the years. Mobile phones and apps aimed at facilitating language learning are now available for both teachers and learners. It is against this background that this research synthesis investigates the contribution of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) to developing listening comprehension skills of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Listening is a fundamental receptive skill that is central to successful communication but, in the past, has not received the attention it deserves in conventional classroom settings. In this research, we highlight the potential for using mobile technologies such as apps, podcasts, and audio platforms to aid and promote listening skills in EFL learning. Conclusions are drawn from the analysis of twenty empirical studies published during the previous decade, selected according to specific inclusion criteria: studies published between 2014 and 2024, written in English, focused on the use of mobile technologies for developing listening comprehension in EFL learners, and reporting empirical findings. Exclusion criteria included studies unrelated to listening comprehension, theoretical articles lacking data, and works not focused on EFL contexts. Therefore, this integration highlights the major benefits of MALL, i.e., greater learner autonomy, motivation, and access to authentic listening materials at any time and from anywhere. Additionally, the current research offers a collection of findings and recommendations for instructors, how MALL can be utilized effectively both in and out of class to foster listening in contemporary EFL learning environments.
EFL Language Learners’ Identity and its Influence on Their Accent
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-31) Cedillo Cedillo, Jaqueline Alexandra; Velesaca Orellana, Samantha Carolina; Hidalgo Camacho, Cynthia Soledad
This research synthesis inquiries into the relationship between English as a Foreign Language learners’ identity and their accent development. Through the examination of twenty empirical studies published within the last 10 years, this work aims to analyze how identity and certain factors related to it, such as cultural affiliation, self-awareness, and contact with the target language, influence students’ perceptions and choices regarding L2 accent acquisition. The results demonstrate the significant, yet complex, role of identity in language learning. While many pupils perceive their accent as a pivotal, significant element of their identity, others do not link these two terms, prioritizing the achievement of social and professional standards by acquiring a native-like accent. Findings also display a discrepancy between the principle of intelligibility and native-speakerism, demonstrating that students tend to opt to either preserve their identity by keeping their mother tongue accent in their L2 accent, or meet societal expectations. Individuals’ goals and motivation shape the entire language learning process.
The Use of AI to Improve English Pronunciation of Adult Learners
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-29) Lema Guamán, Mery Roxana; Tenenuela Abad, Lizbeth Fernanda; Calle Calle, Ana María
This research synthesis aimed to examine the effects, benefits, challenges, and students’ and teachers’ perceptions of integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools to improve adult English pronunciation. To achieve this goal, a total of twenty empirical studies were collected and analyzed. All of the articles were written in English and published within the last 10 years. Moreover, they discussed the role of technology in improving pronunciation. The results reveal that applying AI in the learning process to improve pronunciation has a wide range of positive effects as well as a few negative ones. Regarding the most notable effects, there is a noticeable improvement in both segmental and suprasegmental elements, along with a boost in motivation during the learning process. Conversely, just three negative impacts were found. Moreover, several benefits, such as real-time feedback and the availability of the apps, as well as potential challenges, were highlighted. Concerning teachers' and students’ perspectives, positive viewpoints and judgements emerged. Therefore, these apps seem to be a valuable tool for teachers. Lastly, more research needs to be conducted about these tools, considering different aspects, such as underexplored geographic areas, diverse student populations, and language skills.
Non-native English Speakers’ Strategies for Learning Idiomatic Expressions
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-29) Gárate Rodas, Sebastián Ismael; Palacios Alvarado, Andrea Katherine; Santillán Iñiguez, Juan José
This synthesis examines the effectiveness of different methods for teaching idiomatic expressions within an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) setting based on empirical evidence. A total twenty reviewed published articles from 2005 onwards were selected based on specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. They varied in approaches, participant groups, and associated framework disciplines. The findings of this synthesis illustrate that idioms are important for communicative competence acquisition; however, abstract culturally non-specific elements or metaphors make idioms exceedingly difficult for learners to acquire. From the data, it is apparent that etymological elaboration, metaphorical mapping, complementary visuals, social media inputs from peers, and other dynamic means greatly enhance understanding and memory retention of concepts. In addition to this, these studies suggest improved learner outcomes with teaching that combines cultural background knowledge integrated contextually within lessons planning differentiated instruction scaffolding tailored to varying levels of students' needs. This research underscores the importance of EFL curriculum design whilst advocating interdisciplinary integrative pedagogy frameworks shift toward rigorous research-based paradigms.
Morphological Awareness and its Influence on Lexical Development
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-29) Sarmiento Tenezaca, Karen Abigail; Vanegas Peña, Andrea Carolina; Cabrera Moreno, Sandra Leonor
This research synthesis examines the impact of morphological awareness on vocabulary development in English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Morphological awareness refers to the understanding of the structure and meaning of morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning in a language. The study analyzes 20 scientific papers published between 2010 and 2024, which used qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method approaches. The findings reveal that morphological awareness significantly contributes to vocabulary acquisition and consequently literacy skills. Effective instructional strategies identified include the explicit teaching of morphemes, collaborative learning tasks, and contextualized practice. In general, research indicates that morphological awareness is beneficial across different age groups and language proficiency levels. Overall, this synthesis contributes to the understanding of how morphological awareness can support the improvement of lexical development in EFL contexts.
Analyzing and Overcoming Fossilization in EFL Writing
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-21) Erraez Sanmartin, Emilia Salome; Garcia Illescas, Jacqueline Elizabeth; Calle Calle, María Daniela
Fossilization in writing, understood as the errors that persist despite continuous instruction, remains a recurring problem among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. Therefore, this study aims to identify the most common fossilized writing errors, as well as explore effective strategies to address this phenomenon. To achieve this, a qualitative research synthesis was conducted by analyzing 20 empirical studies published between 2010 and 2024. The studies were examined based on five analytical dimensions: geographical distribution, methodological approach, causes of writing fossilization, most common errors, and strategies to overcome them. The findings reveal that the most recurring errors among EFL students are related to the incorrect use of articles and prepositions, as well as improper spelling. It is worth noting that these errors generally arise from the influence of learners’ native language, as they rely on its grammatical structures when trying to use the target language. Additionally, the results showed that cognitive strategies, particularly explicit feedback provided by the teacher, are among the most effective and recommended approaches for addressing fossilization in EFL students' writing.
Cognitive Relations and Implications of Bilingualism
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-21) Carchipulla Chimbo, Mayra Yolanda; Cárdenas Maldonado, Karla Beatriz; Calle Calle, María Daniela
Bilingualism has become increasingly common in today’s world, largely due to globalization driven by technological advancements and migration. Therefore, this research synthesis aims to analyze the cognitive advantages associated with bilingualism and examine how these mental benefits are interconnected. Based on a review of 20 empirical articles published within the last 10 years, four key cognitive advantages were identified: executive function, attentional control, memory, and creativity. Within the domain of executive function, four subcomponents were also found to be enhanced in bilingual individuals: inhibitory control, planning, cognitive flexibility, and problem solving. A second major finding of this synthesis is the interrelated nature of these cognitive processes, suggesting that bilingualism does not strengthen isolated skills but rather fosters an integrated network of mental abilities. Notably, creativity is inferred to be a potential outcome emerging from the cumulative enhancement of the other cognitive advantages. In closing, two recommendations are proposed: first, to conduct more research in Latin American countries, where studies on this topic remain limited, and second, to further investigate the executive subcomponent of planning, which is underrepresented in current literature. These findings underscore the need for more diverse and targeted research on bilingual cognitive development.
Personal Factors that Affect English Language Learners’ Academic Performance
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-20) Camuendo Remache, Lilibeth Rashell; Heredia Bonilla, Nicole; Abad Celleri, Mónica Patricia
This research synthesis was conducted to determine the effects of learners’ personal factors (motivation, student’s personality, identity, and family relationships) on English language academic performance. Twenty empirical studies were analyzed to answer the research questions. The criteria used to select the articles comprised 1) digital articles written in English or Spanish, 2) qualitative, quantitative, or mixed research approaches, 3) articles focusing on the impact of motivation, students’ personality, identity, and family relationships on academic performance, and 4) articles published in the last seven years. For data analysis, the articles were categorized according to each personal factor. The results highlighted how different personal variables influence English learning academic performance, either positively or negatively. The findings also showed that motivation, student personality, identity, and family relationships are interrelated. Finally, future research should explore how family relationships impact students’ academic performance when learning a second language since there is a lack of research focusing on this variable.
Effects of Positive Education on EFL Students’ Performance
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-23) Mendoza Román, María Emilia; Ochoa Heredia, Doménica Sofía; Heras Urgilés, Gerardo Esteban
The present research synthesis examines the effects of positive education on the academic performance and emotional well-being of language students, as reported in previous studies. Therefore, this educational model was explored from the perspectives of teachers and students through a review of 19 indexed studies from the last 10 years (2015–2025). The study focused on areas such as motivation, mental health, and positive classroom environments and their influence on language learning. The findings indicate that, through the implementation of positive education, students of foreign languages have improved their academic performance and emotional well-being, which has increased motivation. Furthermore, teachers report benefits from positive education, though they also highlight certain challenges in its application no adverse effects were observed among the participants in these studies. Based on these results, it can be asserted that positive education is effective in mitigating stress, anxiety, and other pathologies associated with the challenges that may arise during the learning of a new language in educational institutions, while also considering essential aspects such as the sociocultural context in which this model is applied.
Vocabulary Retention of EFL Learners: The Impact of Digital Media
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-22) Calle Bonete, Karla Noelia; Sinchi Lojano, Nicole Abigail; Calle Calle, Ana María
Numerous forms of integrating digital media into language learning are available with the emergence of new technologies. Diverse digital tools are used nowadays. Therefore, this research synthesis aimed to analyze the effects of digital media resources on EFL learners’ ability to retain vocabulary; it also explored students’ and teachers’ perceptions on digital media. A total of 20 empirical studies were selected and analyzed concerning the implementation of diverse digital resources, including video games, social media, podcasts, and videos for vocabulary retention and learning. Each of the studies was published within the last 10 years. The findings indicated that digital media tools effectively improve the vocabulary retention, motivation, and positive attitudes among students by offering a richer and more contextualized learning experience. Most studies have demonstrated that integrating educational digital resources, particularly podcasts and videos, enhances long-term vocabulary retention. Furthermore, this study identified more favorable effects and perceptions rather than adverse ones. Students’ and teachers’ perceptions on digital resources revealed that these tools are valuable and effective in creating an enjoyable and interactive language learning experience. Finally, this research synthesis presents several recommendations related to underusing the qualitative approach and its relationship with the in-depth exploration of teachers’ perceptions in South American contexts.
Grammar Translation Method vs. Communicative Language Teaching: A Comparative Analysis for Vocabulary Learning
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-22) Barrera Yumbla, Tamara Noemí; Paliz Masache, Michael Alejandro; Mora Reino, Juan Fernando
Vocabulary learning plays a crucial role in English as a Foreign Language (EFL), yet the most appropriate method for achieving it remains a topic of debate. This research synthesis aims to compare the effectiveness of Grammar Translation Method (GTM) and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) regarding vocabulary learning and use. A qualitative research design was adopted through the analysis of 20 empirical studies, which were selected based on criteria such as relevance of EFL contexts, methodological rigor, and focus on vocabulary learning outcomes. The findings indicate that GTM reinforces and actively develops vocabulary learning through structured grammar instruction, straightforward translation, and lists of isolated words. Nevertheless, GTM was found to limit students’ ability to use and apply vocabulary in real-life and communicative contexts appropriately. Conversely, CLT significantly enhances vocabulary learning and application in communicative contexts but may fail to ensure long-term vocabulary retention without explicit instruction. The study concludes that integrating structured instruction with communicative practice may offer the most effective strategy for promoting vocabulary learning in EFL settings.
The Influence of Metacognitive Strategies on Managing Speaking Anxiety in English Language Learners in an EFL Context
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-20) Vargas Pesantez, Anabel Alejandra; Lema Sacta, Gabriela Lisséth; León Vélez, María Verónica
This research synthesis explores the influence of metacognitive strategies on speaking anxiety and academic performance in an EFL context. Twenty empirical studies were analyzed according to the following criteria: focus and context, instruments and design, positive and negative effects of metacognitive strategies on speaking anxiety, and the correlation with speaking academic performance. The findings revealed that mainly planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning are used by students as they effectively mitigate emotional barriers, such as anxiety, fear of speaking, and low confidence, allowing students to approach speaking tasks with increased self-assurance. Although these three strategies are the most used, studies have also revealed that self-reflection and problem-solving help to reduce students' speaking anxiety and improve their oral communication skills. Despite the advantages of metacognitive strategies, there is a need for constant practice and ongoing support to ensure long-term effectiveness. Integrating metacognitive training into EFL curricula helps alleviate speaking anxiety and fosters autonomy and self-regulation in learners, thereby improving speaking performance.
The Effect of Using Socio-affective Strategies to Develop Speaking Skills in EFL Students
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-20) Celi Gualan, Lucía Elizabeth; Vélez Criollo, José Andrés; Fajardo Dack, Tammy Mercedes
Research on the effects of socio-affective strategies on English speaking skills has shown a positive impact on the underlying emotional and interactive processes of these abilities. This research synthesis aims to analyze the effect of using socio-affective strategies on speaking skills in EFL classes. To this purpose, 20 empirical studies were examined through thematic analysis, initially focusing on two categories: effects and students’ perceptions. During the analysis, two further themes emerged: gender differentiation and facilitating factors influencing the delivery of the strategies. Results show improvements in students' speaking performance, anxiety regulation, and self-confidence, which are the most frequently cited effects. Likewise, no gender-based differentiation of these effects was found. In terms of students’ perceptions, enhancement of a favorable teaching environment, enjoyment of group activities, and confidence were identified. However, students reported negative perceptions in terms of a lack of personalized instruction, issues with group collaboration, and speaking anxiety despite the implementation of the strategies. Additionally, facilitating factors, such as explicit teaching and the teacher’s ability to create positive interactions and manage classrooms were found. Finally, the results prompted recommendations for the implementation of new education policies and for English teachers' prior training to facilitate the delivery of socio-affective strategies. Further research on the effects of socio-affective strategies on speaking skills considering variation in teacher’s training and classroom management based on students' gender, ages, English proficiency, and situational and speaking anxiety, is recommended.
The Influence of Explicit Phonetics Instruction on Speaking Skills in EFL Settings
(Universidad de Cuenca. Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, 2025-10-20) Martinez Cajilima, Emily Dayanna; Pauta Chalco, Diego Paul; Abad Célleri, Mónica Patricia
Developing speaking skills is essential for effective communication in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning. This research synthesis explores the relationship between explicit phonetics instruction and the development of oral skills in English learners. A qualitative research synthesis was conducted by analyzing 20 empirical studies published between 2010 and 2023, which were selected based on their focus on English language teaching settings and explicit phonetics instruction. The studies were examined across five analytical dimensions: geographical distribution, research approach, data collection instruments, instructional strategies, and impacted speaking subskills. The findings reveal that explicit instruction, particularly when integrated into communicative tasks, significantly enhances learners' pronunciation accuracy and comprehensibility. While segmental and suprasegmental training show benefits, suprasegmental focus has a stronger impact on fluency. The investigation concludes that explicit phonetics instruction is a valuable tool for improving speaking performance and should be implemented in language education.

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